In a groundbreaking achievement for European paleoanthropology, researchers led by the Università di Bologna have used ancient DNA to reveal a previously unknown Neanderthal community that lived around 100,000 years ago in what is now Poland. This discovery, published on April 22, 2026, in Current Biology, provides the first genetic snapshot of multiple individuals from a single site and time period in Central-Eastern Europe, challenging previous assumptions about Neanderthal population structures and migrations.

The study centers on eight Neanderthal teeth unearthed from Stajnia Cave, located in the Kraków-Częstochowa Upland of southern Poland. These remains, dated to between approximately 120,000 and 92,500 years ago during Marine Isotope Stage 5—a relatively warm interglacial period—belong to at least seven individuals, possibly eight. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA, the genetic material inherited solely from the mother) analysis showed striking similarities among the samples, with three teeth (two from juveniles and one from an adult) sharing identical mtDNA sequences. This suggests close maternal relationships within the group, painting a picture of a tight-knit Neanderthal family or clan "frozen in time."

Stajnia Cave: A Key Archaeological Site in Neanderthal History

Stajnia Cave, situated at 359 meters elevation between the villages of Mirów and Bobolice, is a narrow limestone karst formation that has yielded exceptional Middle Paleolithic artifacts since excavations began in 2007. The cave's rear chamber, where the teeth were found amid bones of Late Pleistocene steppe-tundra animals, offers a rare window into Neanderthal life north of the Carpathians. Previously, a single Neanderthal molar (S5000) from the site had been dated to around 80,000 years ago, but this new multi-sample analysis refines the chronology and genetic story.

Archaeological layers indicate repeated occupations, with Levallois stone tools and fauna suggesting hunting and processing activities. The site's complexity—post-depositional mixing of remains—required careful stratigraphic and genetic cross-verification, a methodological rigor emphasized by the Bologna team. This positions Stajnia not as a peripheral outpost but as a central hub in Neanderthal networks across Eurasia.

Università di Bologna's Leadership in Ancient DNA and Paleoanthropology

The Università di Bologna, one of Europe's oldest universities founded in 1088, has long been at the forefront of biomolecular archaeology. Coordinating this study were Associate Professor Andrea Picin and Full Professor Sahra Talamo from the Department of Chemistry "Giacomo Ciamician," alongside Full Professor Stefano Benazzi from the Department of Cultural Heritage. Picin, a specialist in lithic technology and human evolution, integrated archaeological context with genetics. Talamo, director of the BRAVHO lab, pioneered Radiocarbon 3.0 via her ERC Starting Grant RESOLUTION, blending glacial tree rings, spectroscopy, and climate models for precise dating of prehistoric events like Neanderthal-Homo sapiens encounters.

Benazzi heads the BONES Lab, employing paleoproteomics, digital histology, and osteoarchaeology to probe Neanderthal extinction. His ERC Consolidator Grant LAST NEANDERTHALS (2024-2030, €12.9M) targets understudied regions in Neanderthal decline (60-40 kya), aligning perfectly with Stajnia's insights. Bologna's multidisciplinary approach—spanning chemistry, anthropology, and heritage—exemplifies how Italian higher education drives global human origins research.

Challenges and Innovations in Extracting Ancient DNA

Ancient DNA (aDNA) recovery from Pleistocene remains is notoriously difficult due to degradation, contamination, and low yields. The team succeeded with eight of nine teeth, using high-throughput sequencing to generate full mtDNA genomes. Uranium-thorium dating and Bayesian modeling confirmed ages in MIS 5, cautioning against overprecise radiocarbon for samples nearing calibration limits. Talamo noted, "When radiocarbon values approach the limit of calibration, comparison between archaeology, radiocarbon, and genetics is crucial." This integrated method sets a new standard for European aDNA studies.

Bologna's BRAVHO lab excels in such interdisciplinary chronometry, supporting ERC projects that refine timelines for Neanderthal dispersals. For Europe, where Neanderthal fossils are scarce compared to Western sites, this advances non-destructive techniques vital for heritage preservation.

Genetic Revelations: A Persistent Ancient Lineage

The Stajnia mtDNA clusters with early Neanderthals from Mezmaiskaya Cave (Caucasus), Iberian sites, and Thorin from Mandrin Cave (France, ~50 kya). This lineage, once widespread in western Eurasia, was later supplanted by "late Neanderthal" types. Hajdinjak (Max Planck) highlighted the shared mtDNA in juveniles and adult: "This suggests these individuals might be closely related." Molecular clock estimates place the group at 119,700–92,498 years ago, the oldest multi-individual Neanderthal assemblage in Central Europe.

Picin remarked, "For the first time, we observe a small group of at least seven Neanderthals from Central-Eastern Europe who lived around 100,000 years ago." This challenges models of Neanderthal isolation, revealing long-distance maternal gene flow.

Family Structures and Social Insights

The identical mtDNA in three teeth implies a family unit—perhaps mother and offspring—offering rare direct evidence of Neanderthal social organization. Neanderthals lived in small bands of 10-30, but genetic confirmation from one site is unprecedented outside Western Europe. This bolsters theories of kin-based groups enduring environmental stresses during MIS 5.

For Bologna researchers, this underscores osteoarchaeology's role: Benazzi's team used micro-CT scans for non-invasive morphology, preserving samples for future nuclear DNA attempts.

Pan-European Connections and Population Dynamics

Stajnia links to Iberian, French, and Caucasian Neanderthals, suggesting gene flow across 3,000+ km. Central-Eastern Europe emerges as a crossroads, not fringe, influencing Middle Paleolithic tool traditions like Levallois. Nowaczewska and Nadachowski (Wrocław) said, "These results exceeded our expectations."

The full paper, available openly, details mitogenomes deposited in ENA (PRJEB106537).Read the study here.

Rewriting Neanderthal Demography in Europe

Neanderthals (~400,000-40,000 ya) interbred with Homo sapiens, contributing 1-4% DNA to non-Africans. Stajnia shows early diversity, with lineages vanishing amid bottlenecks. This informs extinction models: climate, competition, or assimilation? Bologna's work elevates Poland's role, urging more Eastern digs.

Bologna's Biomolecular Archaeology Ecosystem

Unibo's Chemistry G. Ciamician and Cultural Heritage depts host labs like BRAVHO and BONES, training PhDs in aDNA/radiocarbon via courses like Biomolecular Archaeology 2025/2026. ERC-funded, they collaborate with Max Planck, Polish Academy. This study exemplifies Unibo's 2026 research output, boosting Europe's paleo leadership.

Projects like LAST NEANDERTHALS (€12.9M) target extinction phases, positioning Bologna centrally.Explore the project.

Expert Reactions and Social Buzz

Chris Stringer (Natural History Museum) tweeted the study's significance for Neanderthal communities. On X, trends highlight "frozen in time" isolation, inspiring debates on Neanderthal society. European academics praise Bologna's integration of genetics/archaeology.

Future Horizons for Neanderthal Research in Europe

Bologna plans nuclear DNA from Stajnia for kinship/Y-chromosome data. With EU Horizon funding, collaborations expand Eastern surveys. For Europe's universities, this validates investing in aDNA labs amid climate threats to sites. Unibo's model—interdept synergy—offers blueprint for continental excellence.

This discovery not only humanizes Neanderthals but elevates Università di Bologna as a beacon in evolutionary sciences, fostering jobs in research and heritage across Europe.

Photo by Mattia Poli on Unsplash