Groundbreaking Discovery: Cocaine Pollution Alters Wild Salmon Behavior

Researchers from leading universities have uncovered a startling effect of environmental cocaine pollution on Atlantic salmon. In a pioneering field experiment conducted in Sweden's vast Lake Vättern, juvenile salmon exposed to realistic levels of cocaine and its primary metabolite, benzoylecgonine (BE), exhibited dramatically increased swimming activity. This marks the first study to demonstrate such behavioral changes in wild fish, rather than in controlled lab settings, highlighting the real-world impacts of human wastewater on aquatic life.

The international team, primarily from the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) and Griffith University in Australia, tracked 105 hatchery-reared Atlantic salmon smolts over eight weeks. These young fish, on the cusp of their migration to the sea, were implanted with slow-release devices delivering environmentally relevant doses of the substances. The findings reveal how even trace pollutants from illicit drug use can disrupt natural fish movement patterns, potentially reshaping ecosystems.

The Experiment: Dosing Wild Salmon in a Natural Lake Habitat

To mimic pollution from urban wastewater, scientists surgically implanted the salmon with tiny acoustic tags and chemical-releasing capsules. Each capsule contained either pure cocaine at 50 micrograms per gram of fish mass, the metabolite benzoylecgonine at the same concentration, or a neutral control substance like coconut oil. After a short recovery period in holding tanks, the fish were released into Lake Vättern, Sweden's second-largest lake, spanning over 1,900 square kilometers.

Acoustic receivers stationed across the lake captured the fish's positions, allowing precise calculation of weekly distances swum and dispersal ranges. Water samples from the site detected trace cocaine (0.11 to 0.85 nanograms per liter) and benzoylecgonine (0.07 to 1.05 ng/L), confirming ambient exposure levels typical of contaminated European waterways. Brain tissue analysis from a subset of fish verified uptake: cocaine-exposed salmon averaged 42.85 ng/g cocaine in their brains, while benzoylecgonine-exposed ones had 33.74 ng/g of the metabolite.

This innovative methodology bridged the gap between lab simulations and nature, providing robust data on how pollutants influence free-roaming animals in complex environments.

Key Results: Swimming Nearly Twice as Far and Dispersing Widely

The data painted a clear picture of hyperactivity. In the final two weeks of tracking, benzoylecgonine-exposed salmon swam up to 1.9 times farther per week than controls—covering an additional 13.7 kilometers on average. Their dispersal extended up to 12.3 kilometers beyond the release point, a 60 percent increase compared to unexposed fish. Cocaine itself prompted milder effects, with exposed fish swimming about 5.3 kilometers farther weekly, though with some statistical uncertainty.

Over time, all groups settled into more localized patterns, but the drug-exposed fish remained notably more active. Spatial analyses showed treated salmon occupying different lake zones, suggesting shifts in habitat preferences. Survival rates appeared similar across groups, indicating no immediate lethal toxicity at these doses.

Benzoylecgonine: The Overlooked Culprit in Cocaine Pollution

Surprisingly, the metabolite benzoylecgonine proved more potent than cocaine itself. As the main breakdown product excreted by humans, BE persists longer in wastewater treatment processes and accumulates at higher environmental concentrations—global averages around 257 ng/L versus 105 ng/L for cocaine. Risk assessments have traditionally focused on the parent drug, potentially underestimating ecological threats.

Brain accumulation data confirmed BE's bioavailability, crossing the blood-brain barrier to alter neural function. This mirrors patterns in other psychoactive pollutants, where metabolites drive prolonged effects.

Photo by Francesco Ungaro on Unsplash

Ecological Ripple Effects on Salmon Populations and Food Webs

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), a keystone species, rely on precise movement for foraging, predator avoidance, and eventual ocean migration. Hyperactivity from BE could deplete energy reserves needed for smolt transformation and sea survival, increase predation vulnerability in unfamiliar territories, or disrupt schooling behaviors essential for protection.

At population levels, altered dispersal might fragment gene flow or expose fish to suboptimal habitats. Trophic cascades could follow: more mobile salmon might overgraze certain areas or evade predators less effectively, impacting invertebrates, birds, and mammals dependent on salmon runs.

• Increased energy expenditure: Up to 90 percent more distance covered weekly raises metabolic demands.
• Predation risks: Venturing farther into open water heightens encounters with pike or birds.
• Migration disruption: Premature dispersal could misalign with optimal sea-entry timing.

The Rise of Drug Pollution in Global Waterways

Cocaine use has surged, with 25 million global users in 2023 per United Nations data, funneling residues into rivers via sewage. European hotspots like the Thames or Po River routinely detect ng/L levels, with peaks during festivals. Wastewater plants remove only 40-80 percent of such compounds, leaving persistent traces.

Beyond cocaine, antidepressants, painkillers, and hormones pollute aquatic systems, compounding stressors like climate change and overfishing on salmon stocks already in decline across Europe and North America.

Building on Prior Research: From Lab Eels to Wild Salmon

Lab studies paved the way. Italian research showed cocaine damaging eel gonads, impairing reproduction via enzyme disruptions. Skeletal muscle in eels suffered morphological harm at 20 ng/L. Shrimp and other fish displayed anxiety-like or aggressive shifts under pharmaceuticals.

This SLU-led study advances the field by validating effects in nature, where variables like currents and prey abundance modulate responses. For more on the original publication, see the detailed analysis in Current Biology.

University Teams Driving Environmental Breakthroughs

The collaboration exemplifies higher education's role in tackling planetary challenges. SLU's Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Environmental Studies hosted the experiment, leveraging expertise in telemetry and ecotoxicology. Griffith University's Australian Rivers Institute contributed behavioral ecology insights, while partners like the Zoological Society of London and Max Planck Institute added global perspectives.

Lead author Jack A. Brand, a SLU researcher, emphasized: “Cocaine and other illicit drug pollutants are a growing environmental concern worldwide.” Co-author Michael G. Bertram noted drugs' brain effects at low doses. Griffith's Marcus Michelangeli added: “If pollution is changing these patterns, it has the potential to affect ecosystems in ways we are only beginning to understand.” Visit SLU's insights at their press release and Griffith's coverage here.

Photo by Will Haddock on Unsplash

Future Horizons: Next Steps in Aquatic Pollution Research

Experts call for expanded studies on long-term survival, reproduction, and multi-pollutant interactions. High-resolution 3D tracking and predation simulations could reveal subtle risks. Policy-wise, advanced wastewater tech like activated carbon filters shows promise in trials.

Higher education institutions are pivotal, training ecotoxicologists through programs in fisheries science and environmental chemistry.

Careers in Aquatic Ecotoxicology and Fish Research

This study underscores opportunities in university-led research. Roles as research assistants, postdocs, or faculty in wildlife departments demand skills in telemetry, toxicology, and statistics. Institutions like SLU and Griffith seek experts to probe pharma pollution's ecosystem toll.

• Key skills: Field telemetry, LC-MS/MS analysis, Bayesian modeling.
• Growing demand: With pharma sales hitting $1.5 trillion annually, pollution studies boom.
• Impact: Contribute to salmon conservation amid 30 percent population declines.

Explore positions in these dynamic fields to join the fight against invisible aquatic threats.