The Challenge of Capacity Fade in Lithium-Ion Batteries

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), rechargeable power sources that use lithium ions to store and release energy, have revolutionized portable electronics, electric vehicles (EVs), and renewable energy storage since their commercialization in 1991 by Sony. These batteries operate through the movement of lithium ions between a cathode (positive electrode) and anode (negative electrode) during charge and discharge cycles. However, a persistent issue hampers their performance: capacity fade, where the battery's ability to hold charge diminishes over time, leading to power loss. Typically, LIBs lose 2-3% capacity annually under normal use, accelerating with fast charging, high temperatures, or deep discharges.

This degradation stems from multiple mechanisms, including solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) growth on the anode consuming lithium, cathode particle cracking due to volume changes, and transition metal dissolution. In the UK, where EV adoption targets 100% zero-emission vehicle sales by 2035 and battery production is key to net zero by 2050, addressing capacity loss is critical. The UK battery market is projected to grow significantly, with demand for lithium, nickel, and cobalt rising sharply for EV batteries.

University of Glasgow's Pioneering Investigation

Researchers at the University of Glasgow's School of Chemistry have made a significant advance in understanding LIB degradation. Led by Dr. Alexey Ganin, a senior lecturer, the team published "Lithiation-Driven LiCrSe₂ Shell Growth on Metallic CrSe₂ Core Governs the Plateau–Slope Behavior" in Advanced Science on March 5, 2026 (early view). Funded by UKRI's Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) and Germany's DFG, the international collaboration included theorists from Ulm University, experimentalists from Queen Mary University of London, University of Kent, and Tianjin University of Technology.

The study used chromium diselenide (CrSe₂) as a model cathode material because it allows fast lithium ion diffusion without structural changes, isolating electronic conductivity effects. This approach revealed overlooked dynamics in real-world cathodes like NMC (nickel-manganese-cobalt) used in EVs.

Methodology: Multi-Scale Probing of Battery Dynamics

The Glasgow team combined computational predictions with experimental validation across scales. First, density functional theory (DFT) modeling predicted conductivity shifts during lithiation (lithium insertion). Then, real-time tracking during battery operation used:

• Muon spectroscopy at ISIS Neutron and Muon Source to probe local electronic environments.
• X-ray diffraction and absorption at Diamond Light Source to observe phase changes.
• Operando battery testing to monitor voltage plateaus and slopes.

Lithiation occurs radially: lithium enters from particle surfaces, forming a LiCrSe₂ shell around a metallic CrSe₂ core. Muon data confirmed the shell's semiconducting nature versus the core's high conductivity. This step-by-step visualization pinpointed the conductivity transition threshold.

Key Discovery: Electronic Conductivity Drop, Not Ionic

Contrary to prevailing views emphasizing ionic conductivity, the study showed electronic conductivity governs power output. During discharge, fast-moving lithium ions sustain high ionic conductivity. However, as charging progresses, the thickening insulating shell impedes electron flow from the core, causing a sharp voltage drop—the "slope" after the initial "plateau."

Dr. Ganin explained: "It’s often assumed that the main limit to the power of lithium-ion batteries is their ionic conductivity... What we’ve shown here is that the material’s electronic conductivity... is just as important, if not more so." This plateau-slope behavior mirrors commercial LIBs, where capacity fades as electrons struggle through degraded paths.

In EVs, this manifests as reduced acceleration and range over cycles, with studies showing 1.8-2.3% annual degradation in real-world fleets.

Mechanical Stress and Cathode Cracking: Compounding Factors

While CrSe₂ avoids volume expansion cracks, real cathodes like NMC suffer 5-10% swelling per cycle, fracturing particles. These cracks expose fresh surfaces to electrolyte, accelerating SEI-like layers on cathodes and further blocking conductivity. Glasgow's model highlights how such mechanical degradation exacerbates electronic isolation.

UK research underscores this: vibration and thermal cycling worsen cracking, vital for grid storage where batteries endure millions of shallow cycles.Explore research associate roles in battery testing at UK universities.

Proposed Solutions: Engineering for Sustained Conductivity

The team advocates computational screening of cathode materials for electronic conductivity at partial lithiation states. Strategies include:

• Doping to maintain metallic character in shells.
• Core-shell architectures with conductive coatings.
• Nanostructuring to shorten diffusion paths.

These could extend cycle life beyond 1,000 fast charges, crucial for EVs retaining 80% capacity after 200,000 miles. Linking to higher-ed jobs in materials science, such innovations drive PhD and postdoc opportunities.

Implications for Electric Vehicles and Renewables in the UK

UK's EV market hit 16% new sales in 2025, but range anxiety persists due to degradation. Glasgow's insights support the UK Battery Strategy, aiming for domestic gigafactories producing 40GWh by 2030. Enhanced batteries enable vehicle-to-grid (V2G) services, stabilizing renewables amid North Sea wind expansion.

Improved fast-charging tolerance reduces peak demand on grids, aligning with net zero goals. For higher ed, this boosts funding for chemistry and engineering departments.

Glasgow's Leadership in Sustainable Energy Research

The University of Glasgow's James Watt School of Engineering and School of Chemistry host the Glasgow Centre for Sustainable Energy, pioneering battery tech. EPSRC grants fund PhD projects on degradation modeling. International ties, like with Helmholtz Ulm, exemplify UK higher ed's global impact.

This research positions Glasgow as a hub for energy materials, attracting talent. Craft your CV for battery research roles.

Career Prospects in UK Battery Innovation

Battery R&D booms, with 87+ UK jobs in research. Glasgow offers postdocs in energy conversion. Skills in muon spectroscopy, operando testing, and DFT are prized. For lecturers or professors, lecturer jobs in chemistry abound. Postdocs can transition via higher-ed postdoc positions.

Future Directions and Challenges Ahead

Next steps: Apply models to commercial NMC/graphite cells, test under real EV conditions. Challenges include scaling conductive designs without cost hikes. UK collaborations with Faraday Institution accelerate commercialization.

Optimism abounds: Dr. Ganin notes computational tools enable rapid material screening, potentially yielding 20-30% better power retention.

Stakeholder Perspectives and Broader Context

Industry views this as pivotal for fast-charging EVs. Academics praise multi-technique validation. Policymakers see alignment with UKRI priorities. Multi-perspective: theorists stress prediction, experimentalists emphasize validation.UKRI funding opportunities

Photo by Johnny Briggs on Unsplash

Conclusion: Paving the Way for Enduring Power

Glasgow's breakthrough shifts focus to electronic conductivity, promising resilient LIBs for UK's green transition. Aspiring researchers, explore Rate My Professor for mentors, higher ed jobs, university jobs, and career advice. Check research jobs and post a job at AcademicJobs.com.